Analysis of George Bernard Shaw’s Plays

George. Bernard. Shaw. (26. July. 1856. –. 2. November. 1950). came. to. an. English. theater. settled. into. the. well-made. play,. a. theater. that. had. not. known. a. first-rate. dramatist. for. more. than. a. century.. The. pap. on. which. its. audiences. had. been. fed,. not. very. different. from. television. fare. today,. provided. a. soothing. escape. from. the. realities. of. the. working. world.. Instead. of. fitting. himself. to. this. unreal. mold,. Shaw. offered. reality. in. all. its. forms:. social,. political,. economic,. and. religious.. He. was. a. didact,. a. preacher. who. readily. acknowledged. that. the. stage. was. his. pulpit.. In. startling. contrast. to. his. contemporary. Oscar. Wilde. and. Wilde’s. fellow. aesthetes,. Shaw. asserted. that. he. would. not. commit. a. single. sentence. to. paper. for. art’s. sake. alone;. yet. he. beat. the. aesthetes. at. their. own. artistic. game.. Though. he. preached. socialism,. creative. evolution,. the. abolition. of. prisons,. and. real. equality. for. women,. and. railed. against. the. insincerity. of. motives. for. war,. he. did. so. as. a. jester. in. some. of. the. finest. comedy. ever. written.. He. had. no. desire. to. be. a. martyr. and. insisted. that,. though. his. contemporaries. might. merely. laugh. at. his. plays,. “a. joke. is. an. earnest. in. the. womb. of. time.”. The. next. generation. would. get. his. point,. even. if. the. current. generation. was. only. entertained.

 

Many. of. the. next. generations. have. gotten. his. point,. and. Shaw’s. argument—that. he. who. writes. for. all. time. will. discover. that. he. writes. for. no. time—seems. to. have. been. borne. out.. Only. by. saying. something. to. the. age. can. one. say. something. to. posterity.. Today,. evolution. and. creationism. and. Shaw’s. ideas. on. creative. evolution. and. the. Life. Force. remain. timely. issues.. In. Shaw’s. own. day,. as. Dan. Laurence. points. out,. Henri. Bergson. changed. the. dramatist’s. Life. Force. into. the. élan. vital. four. years. after. Shaw. wrote. of. it. in. Man. and. Superman,. and. Pierre. Teilhard. de. Chardin’s. evolutionary. ideas,. so. appealing. to. moderns,. about. the. movement. of. the. “noosphere”. toward. an. omega. man,. show. the. timeliness. of. Shaw’s. evolutionary. theory. that. humankind. is. in. the. process. of. creating. a. God.. Shaw’s. condemnation. of. the. prison. system. as. a. vindictive,. not. a. rehabilitative. force,. matches. the. widespread. concern. with. the. ineffectiveness. of. that. system. today.. His. struggle. for. the. genuine. equality. of. women. with. men. before. the. law. also. gives. his. work. a. surprisingly. contemporary. thrust.. Shaw. brought. serious. themes. back. to. the. trivialized. English. stage,. creating. a. body. of. drama. that. left. him. second. to. none. among. twentieth. century. dramatists.

A. religious. thinker,. George. Bernard. Shaw. saw. the. stage. as. his. pulpit.. His. major. interest. was. to. advance. the. Life. Force,. a. kind. of. immanent. Holy. Spirit. that. would. help. to. improve. and. eventually. perfect. the. world.. Shaw. believed. that. to. help. in. this. conscious. purpose,. human. beings. must. live. longer. in. order. to. use. their. intellectual. maturity.. They. must. be. healthier,. without. the. debilitating. force. of. poverty,. and—most. important—. they. must. be. interested. in. purpose,. not. simply. pleasure.. As. the. giraffe. could. develop. its. long. neck. over. aeons. because. of. a. need. to. eat. from. the. tops. of. trees,. so. can. human. beings,. with. a. sense. of. purpose,. work. toward. the. creation. of. healthier,. longerlived,. more. intelligent. individuals.

According. to. Shaw,. evolution. is. not. merely. haphazard. but. is. tied. to. will.. Human. beings. can. know. what. they. want. and. will. what. they. know.. Certainly,. individuals. cannot. simply. will. that. they. live. longer. and. expect. to. do. so.. Such. desire. might. help,. but. it. is. the. race,. not. the. individual,. that. will. eventually. profit. from. such. a. common. purpose.. Ultimately,. Shaw. believed,. this. drive. toward. a. more. intelligent. and. spiritual. species. would. result. after. aeons. in. human. beings’. shucking. off. matter,. which. had. been. taken. on. by. spirit. in. the. world’s. beginning. so. that. evolution. could. work. toward. intelligence.. When. that. intelligence. achieves. its. full. potential,. matter. will. no. longer. be. necessary.. Humankind. is. working. toward. the. creation. of. an. infinite. God.

Shaw’s. plays. are. not. restricted. to. such. metaphysics.. They. treat. political,. social,. and. economic. concerns:. the. false. notion. that. people. help. criminals. by. putting. them. in. jail. or. help. themselves. by. atonement. (Major. Barbara,. Captain. Brassbound’s. Conversion,. The. Simpleton. of. the. Unexpected. Isles),. the. need. for. tolerance. (On. the. Rocks,. Androcles. and. the. Lion),. the. superstitious. worship. of. medicine. and. science. (The. Philanderer,. The. Doctor’s. Dilemma),. the. superiority. of. socialism. to. capitalism. (Widowers’. Houses,. The. Apple. Cart,. The. Inca. of. Perusalem),. the. evils. of. patriotism. (O’Flaherty,. V.C.,. Arms. and. the. Man),. the. need. for. a. supranational. state. (Geneva),. the. necessity. for. recognizing. women’s. equality. with. men. (In. Good. King. Charles’s. Golden. Days,. Press. Cuttings),. and. so. on.. Nevertheless,. all. of. Shaw’s. efforts. to. question. social. and. political. mores. were. subsumed. by. his. religious. purpose.. All. were. meant. to. help. free. the. human. spirit. in. its. striving. toward. the. creation. of. a. better. and. more. intelligent. person,. the. creation. of. a. superman,. the. creation,. finally,. of. a. God.

Arms and the Man

In. 1894,. two. years. after. completing. his. first. play,. Shaw. wrote. Arms. and. the. Man.. Although. lighter. and. less. complex. than. later. plays,. it. is. typical. of. the. later. plays. in. that. Shaw. uses. comedy. as. a. corrective—a. corrective,. as. Louis. Crompton. effectively. puts. it,. that. is. intended. to. shame. the. audience. out. of. conformity,. in. contrast. to. Molière’s,. which. is. intended. to. shame. the. audience. into. conformity.

The. year. is. 1885.. Bulgaria. and. Serbia. are. at. war,. the. Serbs. have. just. been. routed,. and. the. play. opens. with. one. of. the. Serbs’. officers,. Captain. Bluntschli,. climbing. through. the. window. of. a. Bulgarian. house.. The. house. belongs. to. Major. Petkoff,. and. Raina. Petkoff. lies. dreaming. of. her. lover,. a. dashing. Byronic. hero,. Sergius. Saranoff,. who. has. led. the. cavalry. charge. that. routed. the. Serbs.. Bluntschli. comes. into. her. room,. gun. in. hand,. but. persuades. her. not. to. give. him. away,. more. because. a. fight. will. ensue. while. she. is. not. properly. dressed. than. for. any. fear. she. has. of. being. shot.

Bluntschli. turns. out. to. be. Saranoff’s. opposite.. He. is. a. practical. Swiss. who. joined. the. Serbs. merely. because. they. were. the. first. to. enlist. his. services,. not. because. he. believed. either. side. to. be. in. the. right.. When. the. Bulgarian. soldiers. enter. the. house. and. demand. to. search. Raina’s. room,. she. hides. Bluntschli. on. impulse.. After. the. soldiers’. departure,. he. describes. for. Raina. the. recent. battle. in. which. some. quixotic. fool. led. a. cavalry. charge. of. frightened. men. against. a. battery. of. machine. guns.. All. were. trying. to. rein. in. their. horses. lest. they. get. there. first. and. be. killed.. The. Serbs,. however,. happened. not. to. have. the. right. ammunition,. and. what. should. have. been. a. slaughter. of. the. Bulgarians. turned. out. to. be. a. rout. of. the. Serbs.. Yet. for. his. irresponsible. foolishness,. this. “Don. Quixote”. is. sure. to. be. rewarded. by. the. Bulgarians.. When. Raina. shows. Bluntschli. the. picture. of. her. lover,. and. Saranoff. turns. out. to. be. “Quixote,”. Bluntschli. is. duly. embarrassed,. tries. to. cover. by. suggesting. that. Saranoff. might. have. known. in. advance. of. the. Serbs’. ammunition. problem,. but. only. makes. it. worse. by. suggesting. to. this. romantic. girl. that. her. lover. would. have. been. such. a. crass. pretender. and. coward. as. to. attack. under. such. conditions.

This. is. Shaw’s. first. ridicule. of. chivalric. notions. of. war.. The. viewpoint. is. corroborated. in. the. next. act. by. Saranoff. when. he. returns. disillusioned. because. he. has. not. been. promoted.. He. did. not. follow. the. scientific. rules. of. war. and. was. thus. undeserving.. Saranoff. has. discovered. that. soldiering. is. the. cowardly. art. of. attacking. mercilessly. when. one. is. strong. and. keeping. out. of. harm’s. way. when. weak.

In. this. second. act,. which. takes. place. at. the. war’s. end. only. four. months. later,. the. audience. is. treated. to. some. satire. of. Victorian. “higher. love,”. which. Saranoff. carries. on. with. Raina. before. more. realistically. flirting. with. her. maid,. Louka.. Later,. in. a. momentary. slip. from. his. chivalric. treatment. of. Raina,. Saranoff. jokes. about. a. practical. Swiss. who. helped. them. with. arrangements. for. prisoner. exchange. and. who. bragged. about. having. been. saved. by. infatuating. a. Bulgarian. woman. and. her. mother. after. visiting. the. young. woman. in. her. bedroom.. Recognizing. herself,. Raina. chides. Saranoff. for. telling. such. a. crass. story. in. front. of. her,. and. he. immediately. apologizes. and. reverts. to. his. gallant. pose.

Finally. in. act. 3,. after. Bluntschli. has. returned. for. an. overcoat. and. Saranoff. discovers. that. Raina. and. her. mother. were. the. women. who. saved. the. Swiss,. Saranoff. challenges. Bluntschli. to. a. duel.. Bluntschli,. however,. will. not. return. the. romantic. pose. and. calls. Saranoff. a. blockhead. for. not. realizing. that. Raina. had. no. other. choice. at. gunpoint.. When. Saranoff. realizes. that. there. is. no. romance. in. fighting. this. prosaic. shopkeeper,. he. backs. off.. Bluntschli. wins. Raina’s. hand,. Saranoff. wins. Louka’s,. and. all. ends. happily.. Yet. at. the. very. point. at. which. the. audience. might. expect. the. play. to. use. its. romantic,. well-made. plot. to. criticize. romanticism,. Shaw. again. changes. direction. by. showing. his. antihero. Bluntschli. to. be. a. romantic.. To. everyone’s. consternation,. Saranoff’s. in. particular,. Bluntschli. points. out. that. most. of. his. problems. have. been. the. result. of. an. incurably. romantic. disposition:. He. ran. away. from. home. twice. as. a. boy,. joined. the. army. rather. than. his. father’s. business,. climbed. the. balcony. of. the. Petkoff. house. instead. of. sensibly. diving. into. the. nearest. cellar,. and. came. back. to. this. young. girl,. Raina,. to. get. his. coat. when. any. man. his. age. would. have. sent. for. it.. Thus,. Shaw. uses. Arms. and. the. Man. not. only. to. attack. romanticism. about. war. or. love. but. also. to. assert. the. importance. of. knowing. and. being. true. to. oneself,. to. one’s. life. force.. It. matters. little. whether. Bluntschli. is. a. romantic.. He. knows. and. is. true. to. himself.. He. does. not. pose. and. does. not. deceive. himself,. as. do. Saranoff. and. Raina.

Only. one. who. is. true. to. himself. and. does. not. deny. himself. can. attune. himself. to. the. Life. Force. and. help. advance. the. evolutionary. process.. Although. Saranoff. changes. his. career. when. he. renounces. soldiering,. he. does. so. because. he. was. not. justly. rewarded. for. his. dashing. cavalry. charge.. He. does. not. abandon. his. habitual. self-deception.. Even. his. marriage. to. the. servant. girl,. Louka,. has. something. of. the. romantic. pose. about. it;. it. is. rebellious.. Raina’s. marriage. to. Bluntschli. has. more. potential;. at. least. she. has. come. to. see. her. own. posing.

Although. the. play. seems. light. when. set. beside. the. later,. more. complex. triumphs,. Shaw’s. “religious”. purpose. can. be. seen. here. at. the. beginning. of. his. career.. It. will. be. better. argued. in. Man. and. Superman. and. more. fully. argued. in. Back. to. Methuselah,. but. the. failure. of. the. latter,. more. Utopian. work. shows. that. Shaw’s. religious. ideas. most. engaged. his. audience. when. they. were. rooted. in. the. social,. political,. or. economic. criticism. of. his. times,. as. they. were. in. Arms. and. the. Man.

 

Candida

A. year. after. Arms. and. the. Man,. Shaw. wrote. Candida,. his. version. of. Henrik. Ibsen’s. 1879. play,. Et. dukkehjem. (A. Doll’s. House,. 1880).. Candida. showed. that,. while. Shaw. was. as. much. a. proponent. of. equality. as. was. his. early. mentor,. he. saw. women’s. usual. familial. role. from. an. opposite. perspective.. As. Ibsen. saw. it,. women. suffer. in. marriage. from. being. treated. like. children;. a. wife. is. denied. the. larger. responsibilities. that. are. the. province. of. her. husband.. As. a. consequence,. the. wife’s. personal. maturity. is. arrested.. She. becomes,. in. a. word,. a. doll.. Shaw. did. not. think. this. the. usual. marital. paradigm;. his. view. of. marriage. included. a. husband. who. does. tend. to. see. himself. as. the. dominant. force. in. the. family,. but. the. wife. is. seldom. the. petted. child. that. Ibsen’s. Nora. is.. Much. more. frequently,. she. is. like. Candida,. the. real. strength. of. the. family,. who,. like. her. husband’s. mother. before. her,. allows. her. husband. to. live. in. a. “castle. of. comfort. and. indulgence”. over. which. she. stands. sentinel.. She. makes. him. master,. though. he. does. not. know. it.. Men,. in. other. words,. are. more. often. the. petted,. indulged. children,. and. women. more. often. the. sustaining. force. in. the. family.

Candida. is. set. entirely. in. St.. Dominic’s. Parsonage,. and. the. action. is. ostensibly. a. very. unoriginal. love. triangle. involving. the. parson,. James. Morell,. his. wife,. Candida,. and. a. young. poet,. Eugene. Marchbanks.. The. originality. comes. from. the. unique. twist. given. this. stock. situation.. Morell. is. a. liberal,. aggressive. preacher,. worshiped. by. women. and. by. his. curate.. Marchbanks. is. a. shy,. effeminate. eighteen-year-old,. in. manner. somewhat. reminiscent. of. a. young. Percy. Bysshe. Shelley,. and. he. is. possessed. too. of. Shelley’s. inner. strength,. though. this. is. not. immediately. apparent.. The. young. poet. declares. to. Morell. his. love. for. Candida,. Morell’s. beautiful. thirty-three-year-old. wife.. The. self-assured. Morell. indulges. the. young. man. and. assures. him. that. the. whole. world. loves. Candida;. his. is. another. version. of. puppy. love. that. he. will. outgrow.. The. ethereal. Marchbanks. cannot. believe. that. Morell. thinks. Candida. capable. of. inspiring. such. trivial. love. in. him.. He. is. able,. as. no. one. else. is,. to. see. that. Morell’s. brilliant. sermons. and. his. equally. brilliant. conversation. are. nothing. but. the. gift. of. gab;. Morell. is. an. inflated. windbag.. Marchbanks. forces. Morell. to. see. himself. in. this. way,. and. Morell. shows. that. the. poet. has. hit. home. when. he. almost. throttles. him.

Morell. broaches. the. subject. of. Marchbanks’s. love. to. Candida,. at. the. young. man’s. insistence,. and. Candida. assures. her. husband. that. she. already. knows. Eugene. is. in. love. with. her.. She. is. surprised,. however,. to. find. Morell. upset. by. it.. Nevertheless,. the. two. foolish. men. force. a. crisis. by. making. Candida. choose. between. them.. When. she. plays. their. game. and. asks. what. each. has. to. offer,. Morell. offers. his. strength. for. her. defense,. his. honesty. for. her. surety,. his. industry. for. her. livelihood,. and. his. authority. and. position. for. her. dignity.. Eugene. offers. his. weakness. and. desolation.

Candida,. bemused. that. neither. offers. love. and. that. each. wishes. to. own. her,. acknowledges. that. the. poet. has. made. a. good. offer.. She. informs. them. that. she. will. give. herself,. because. of. his. need,. to. the. weaker. of. the. two.. Morell. is. desolate,. but. Eugene. is,. too,. since. he. realizes. that. Candida. means. Morell.. Eugene. leaves. with. the. now. famous. “secret. in. his. heart.”. The. secret. the. poet. knows. is. that. he. can. live. without. happiness,. that. there. is. another. love. than. that. of. woman—the. love. of. purpose.

The. twist. Shaw. gives. the. standard. triangle,. then,. is. not. merely. that. the. effeminate. young. poet. is. stronger. than. the. commanding. figure. of. Morell,. but. also. that. Candida. is. stronger. than. both.. Morell. is. clearly. the. doll. in. this. house.. Even. so,. to. identify. Shaw. with. Marchbanks,. as. his. fine. biographer. Archibald. Henderson. does,. makes. little. sense.. Marchbanks. is. an. aesthete. like. Wilde. or. the. young. William. Butler. Yeats,. and. the. poetic. sentiments. he. expresses. to. Candida. sound. very. like. Shelley’s. Epipsychidion.. Shaw,. who. did. not. share. Shelley’s. rapture. about. romantic. love. and. who. liked. aestheticism. so. little. that. he. swore. he. would. not. face. the. toil. of. writing. a. single. sentence. for. art’s. sake. alone,. clearly. cannot. be. confused. with. Marchbanks.. He. has. more. in. common. with. Morell,. who. is. socialistic. and. industrious.. It. is. Morell. who. voices. Shaw’s. sentiments. when. he. tells. Marchbanks. that. people. have. no. more. right. to. consume. happiness. without. producing. it. than. they. have. to. consume. wealth. without. producing. it.. The. character. in. this. play. who. comes. closest. to. Shaw,. however,. is. Candida. herself.. Much. stronger. than. Ibsen’s. Nora,. she. is. the. only. character. who. does. not. deceive. herself.. Morell. does. not. realize. that. he. needs. to. be. coddled. in. order. to. play. his. role. as. a. dynamic,. liberal. clergyman.. Only. at. the. play’s. end. and. with. Candida’s. help,. does. Marchbanks. discover. the. truth. she. has. known. all. along.

Candida. is. subtitled. A. Mystery,. and,. though. Shaw. is. treating. a. dramatic. convention. with. humor,. there. is. perhaps. a. more. serious. sense. in. which. he. uses. the. subtitle:. There. is. some. mystery. involved. in. the. ties. that. bind. people. together. in. marriage.. In. the. climactic. scene,. in. which. Candida. is. made. to. choose. between. the. two. men,. a. traditional. dramatist. might. have. demonstrated. the. lover. to. be. a. cad. and. have. thrown. him. out.. A. more. romantic. dramatist. would. have. shown. the. husband. to. be. a. tyrant. and. had. the. wife. and. lover. elope.. Shaw. chooses. neither. solution.. He. has. the. wife. remain. with. the. husband,. but. not. because. the. lover. is. a. cad. or. because. she. owes. it. to. her. husband. contractually. or. for. any. of. the. standard. reasons. Morell. offers,. but. because. he. needs. her. and. she. loves. him.. In. this. mystery. about. what. binds. partners. in. marriage,. Shaw. seems. to. suggest. that. it. is. not. the. contract,. still. less. any. ideal. of. purity,. but. simply. mutual. love. and. need.

What. connects. Candida. with. Arms. and. the. Man,. as. well. as. with. the. later. plays,. is. the. demand. that. persons. be. true. to. themselves.. Morell. taught. Candida. to. think. for. herself,. she. tells. him,. but. it. upsets. him. when. that. intellectual. independence. leads. to. conclusions. different. from. his. own.. Candida. will. not. submit. to. Christian. moralism. any. more. than. she. will. to. poetic. romanticism.. If. there. is. any. salvation. for. Marchbanks,. it. is. that. he. has. learned. from. Candida. the. secret. that. lies. hidden. in. his. heart:. He. is. not. dependent. on. happiness. or. on. the. love. of. a. woman.. In. becoming. aware. of. this,. he. has. the. potential. to. be. a. true. artist,. one. attuned. to. purpose. and. not. to. self-indulgence.. Thus,. the. play. leads. to. the. more. lengthy. dramatization. of. the. struggle. between. the. philosopherartist. and. the. woman-mother. that. is. evident. in. Man. and. Superman.

Man and Superman

Man. and. Superman. promotes. Shaw’s. philosophy. of. the. Life. Force. more. explicitly. than. do. any. of. his. previous. plays.. Indeed,. much. of. the. play. is. given. to. discussion,. particularly. during. the. long. dream. sequence. in. act. 3;. Shaw. never. thought. that. a. play’s. action. need. be. physical.. The. dynamics. of. argument,. of. intellectual. and. verbal. exchange,. were. for. Shaw. much. more. exciting. than. conventional. action.

The. drama. originated. in. a. suggestion. by. Arthur. Bingham. Walkley. that. Shaw. write. a. Don. Juan. play.. After. all,. did. not. Shaw. suffer. as. a. playwright. from. an. excess. of. cerebration. and. a. lack. of. physicality?. Surely,. Walkley. reasoned,. the. subject. of. the. amours. of. Don. Juan. would. force. him. off. his. soapbox. and. into. the. boudoir.. In. response. to. this. challenge,. Shaw. wrote. a. much. more. cerebral. play. than. he. had. ever. written. before.. In. his. lengthy. “Epistle. Dedicatory”. to. Walkley,. Shaw. explains. why.. The. essence. of. the. Don. Juan. legend. is. not,. like. Casanova’s,. that. its. hero. is. an. “oversexed. tomcat.”. Rather,. its. essence. lies. in. Juan’s. following. his. own. instincts. rather. than. law. or. convention.

The. play. is. as. diffuse. and. difficult. to. stage. as. Candida. is. concise. and. delightful. to. produce.. Most. of. the. difficulty. has. to. do. with. the. lengthy. Don. Juan. in. Hell. dream. sequence. during. act. 3,. which. causes. the. play. to. run. more. than. four. hours.. More. often. than. not,. the. sequence. has. been. separated. from. the. play.. Not. until. 1964,. in. fact,. when. the. Association. of. Producing. Artists. staged. the. play. at. New. York. City’s. Phoenix. Theatre. was. the. entire. play. produced. in. the. United. States.. ‘

As. the. delightful. first. act. opens,. Ann. Whitefield. has. lost. her. father,. and. everyone. is. waiting. to. learn. from. the. will. who. her. guardian. will. be.. Roebuck. Ramsden,. close. friend. of. her. father. and. self-styled. liberal,. is. the. leading. candidate. and. is. at. the. moment. lecturing. Ann’s. young. suitor,. Octavius,. on. his. friend,. Jack. Tanner,. who. is. not. fit. to. be. seen. with. Octavius,. much. less. with. Ann.. Tanner. has. scandalized. this. Victorian. liberal. by. his. newly. published. “The. Revolutionist’s. Handbook,”. whose. entire. text. Shaw. appends. to. the. play.. “The. Revolutionist’s. Handbook”. is. a. didact’s. device. for. getting. across. some. of. the. ideas. that. would. have. been. unpalatable. in. the. play,. as. when. Tanner. argues. (here. without. opposition). that. the. Life. Force. would. be. served. better. if. people. were. given. more. freedom. in. mating.. That. is. to. say,. people. who. might. not. be. compatible. as. marriage. partners. might. nevertheless. produce. the. finest. offspring.

When. Tanner. appears,. the. audience. is. delighted. by. his. wit.. He. good-humoredly. but. repeatedly. scandalizes. Ramsden,. particularly. when. he. announces. that. he. and. Ramsden. have. been. named. joint. guardians. of. Ann.. Tanner. is. not. eager. to. undertake. his. role;. he. knows. how. manipulative. Ann. can. be,. but. he. does. not. yet. recognize. what. even. his. chauffeur. could. have. told. him:. Ann. has. designs. on. him. and. not. on. his. friend,. Octavius.. Ann. is. in. the. grip. of. the. Life. Force,. which. drives. all. women. in. their. capacity. as. mothers. to. want. to. reproduce,. and. she. implicitly. knows. that. Tanner. would. be. the. proper. father. for. her. offspring,. not. the. romantic. but. spiritually. flabby. young. Octavius. Tanner,. however,. is. Shaw’s. philosopher-artist. and,. as. such,. Tanner. knows. that. he. must. flee. the. stifling. bliss. of. marriage. and. domesticity. to. pursue. his. own. purpose—something. that. Marchbanks. learned. at. the. end. of. Candida.

When. Tanner. learns. of. Ann’s. designs,. he. flees. to. Spain.. Here,. he. and. his. chauffeur. are. captured. by. a. group. of. brigands. led. by. an. Englishman. named. Mendoza.. While. captive,. Tanner. dreams. the. lengthy. dream. that. constitutes. the. Don. Juan. in. Hell. scene.. The. scene. is. a. brilliant. debate. involving. Don. Juan. (looking. like. John. Tanner),. the. Devil. (looking. like. Mendoza),. Doña. Ana. (looking. remarkably. like. Ann. Whitefield),. and. Ana’s. father,. Don. Gonzalo. (looking. like. Roebuck. Ramsden).. The. debate. centers. on. the. relative. merits. of. Heaven. and. Hell.. Doña. Ana,. “a. good. Catholic,”. is. astonished. to. find. herself. a. newcomer. to. Hell. and. has. to. have. it. explained. to. her. that. some. of. the. best. company. are. here.. One. can. go. to. Heaven. if. he. or. she. wishes,. but. one. must. remember. that. the. gulf. between. the. two. is. really. a. matter. of. natural. inclination. or. temperament.. Hell. is. a. place. for. those. in. whom. enjoyment. predominates. over. purpose,. desires. over. reason,. the. heart. over. the. head,. the. aesthetic. over. the. ideological,. and. romance. over. realism.

Don. Juan. is. about. to. depart. for. Heaven. because. he. is. sick. of. the. Devil’s. cant. about. the. aesthetic. values,. the. enjoyment. of. music,. the. pleasures. of. the. heart.. An. eternity. of. enjoyment. is. an. intolerable. bore.He. wishes. not. to. enjoy. life. but. to. help. it. in. its. struggle. upward.. The. reason. Juan. went. to. Hell. to. begin. with. was. that. he. thought. he. was. a. pleasure-seeker,. but. he. has. discovered,. as. Shaw. indicates. in. the. dedicatory. epistle,. that. his. amours. were. more. a. form. of. rebellion. than. of. pleasure-seeking.. Realizing. that. he. is. temperamentally. a. philosophical. man,. who. seeks. to. learn. in. contemplation. the. inner. will. of. the. world,. to. discover. in. invention. the. means. of. achieving. that. will,. and. to. follow. in. action. those. means,. he. prefers. Heaven.

The. dream. sequence. is. also. concerned. with. woman’s. maternal. role. in. advancing. the. Life. Force.. If. it. seems,. at. first. glance,. that. the. ardent. feminist. who. authored. Candida. has. here. turned. his. coat. and. relegated. women. to. a. merely. sexual. role,. it. must. be. remembered. that. for. the. moment. Shaw. is. speaking. only. of. one. side. of. woman.. When. Ana. corrects. Don. Juan’s. view. of. woman’s. mind,. he. points. out. to. her. that. he. speaks. not. of. woman’s. whole. mind. but. only. of. her. view. of. man. as. a. separate. sex.. Only. sexually. is. woman’s. nature. a. contrivance. for. perpetuating. its. highest. achievement.. She. too. can. be. the. philosopher-artist. attuned. to. the. work. of. advancing. the. Life. Force.. Thus,. two. ways. of. achieving. the. inner. will. of. the. world. are. open. to. her.

In. the. fourth. and. final. act,. having. awakened. from. his. dreams,. Tanner. shows. that. he. is. not. yet. as. forceful. as. his. ancestor,. Don. Juan,. when. he. gives. in. to. Ann’s. superior. force. and. agrees. to. marry. her.. Ironically,. the. romantic. Octavius. is. the. one. who. resigns. himself. to. bachelorhood.

The. play,. then,. is. a. philosophical. comedy. whose. theme. is. that. the. Life. Force. is. dependent. on. man. and. woman. if. it. is. to. move. creation. upward.. A. man. or. woman. possessed. of. a. sense. of. purpose. must. attune. himself. or. herself. to. the. Life. Force,. since. the. only. true. joy. lies. in. being. used. for. its. purposes,. in. being. willing. to. burn. oneself. out. and. heap. oneself. on. the. scrap. pile. at. the. end. without. any. promise. of. a. personal. reward.. Although. a. number. of. critics. see. Tanner. as. the. epitome. of. Shavian. man,. Tanner. does. capitulate. to. Ann.. He. lacks. the. fiber. of. Don. Juan,. who. realizes. the. boredom. of. a. life. of. pleasure.. Indeed,. Marchbanks. of. Candida. is. more. truly. Shavian. than. Tanner.

Notwithstanding. Shaw’s. overt. didacticism. in. this. play,. he. is. true. to. his. belief. that,. like. the. Ancient. Mariner,. he. must. tell. his. tale. entertainingly. if. he. is. to. hold. the. attention. of. the. wedding. guest.. Consequently,. he. claims. full. responsibility. for. the. opinions. of. Don. Juan. but. claims. equal. responsibility. for. those. of. the. other. characters.. For. the. dramatic. moment,. each. character’s. viewpoint. is. also. Shaw’s.. Those. who. believe. there. is. an. absolutely. right. point. of. view,. he. says. in. the. “Epistle. Dedicatory,”. usually. believe. it. is. their. own. and. cannot,. in. consequence,. be. true. dramatists.

Major Barbara

In. Major. Barbara,. published. not. long. after. Man. and. Superman,. Shaw’s. dramatic. means. of. advancing. his. theory. of. the. Life. Force. was. to. assert. that. poverty. was. the. world’s. greatest. evil.. What. critics,. even. astute. ones. such. as. G.. K.. Chesterton,. thought. materialistic. in. Shaw,. the. author. would. insist. was. spiritual.. Only. with. money. could. one. save. one’s. soul.

Major. Barbara. opens. in. the. home. of. Lady. Britomart. Undershaft,. whose. estranged. millionaire. husband. has. been. invited. to. the. house. for. the. first. time. since. the. children,. now. adults,. were. toddlers.. Her. purpose. in. inviting. this. scandalous. old. atheist. to. her. house. is. to. get. more. money. for. her. daughters,. Barbara. and. Sarah,. who. are. about. to. marry.Moreover,. she. would. like. Andrew. Undershaft. to. break. the. ridiculous. custom. of. having. the. Undershaft. munitions. business. go. to. an. orphan. and. instead. give. it. to. his. own. son,. Stephen.. When. Undershaft. meets. his. family,. he. is. favorably. impressed. by. Barbara,. who. is. a. major. in. the. Salvation. Army,. and. by. Adolphus. Cusins,. her. suitor,. who. is. a. professor. of. Greek.. He. recognizes. that. Stephen. is. hopelessly. inept. and. that. Charles. Lomax,. Sarah’s. young. man,. is. less. pompous. than. Stephen. but. no. less. foolish.. Barbara. invites. her. father. to. West. Ham. so. that. he. might. see. the. constructive. work. of. the. Salvation. Army,. and. he. agrees,. provided. that. she. come. to. see. his. munitions. plant. at. Perivale. St.. Andrews.. Thus,. the. play’s. structure. is. neatly. determined,. with. a. second. act. at. West. Ham. and. a. third. at. Perivale. St.. Andrews.

In. act. 2,. Barbara. shows. her. father. the. Salvation. Army’s. good. work,. only. to. learn. from. her. father. and. the. Army’s. Commissioner,. Mrs.. Baines,. the. painful. fact. that. the. Army—like. all. religious. organizations—depends. on. contributions. from. whiskey. distillers. and. munitions. owners. such. as. her. father.. When. Barbara. is. told. that. the. Army. could. not. subsist. without. this. “tainted”. money,. she. realizes. that. she. is. not. changing. the. essential. condition. of. the. poor. but. simply. keeping. them. alive. with. a. bowl. of. soup;. she. is. helping. the. capitalists. justify. themselves. with. conscience. money.. She. thus. serves. capital. rather. than. God.

When. in. act. 3. the. family. visits. the. munitions. factory,. Undershaft. surprisingly. reveals. the. existence. of. a. model. socialist. community. at. Perivale. St.. Andrews.. Though. Undershaft. lives. off. the. need. of. people. to. conduct. war,. he. accepts. that. need. and. uses. it. to. destroy. society’s. greatest. evil,. poverty.. In. his. community,. all. men. work,. earn. a. decent. wage,. and. can. thus. turn. to. matters. of. the. soul,. such. as. religion,. without. being. bribed. to. do. so.. Since. Barbara. has. come. to. realize. that. religious. organizations. exist. by. selling. themselves. to. the. rich,. she. decides. to. get. Peter. Shirley. a. job. rather. than. feed. him. and. ask. him. to. pray. in. thanksgiving. at. West. Ham.. She. herself. joins. her. father’s. model. village,. especially. since. Cusins. is. conveniently. discovered. to. be. an. orphan. and. the. ideal. person. to. inherit. the. munitions. factory.

Shaw’s. lengthy. preface. to. the. play. sets. out. a. good. deal. of. his. ethical. philosophy:. Poverty. is. the. worst. evil. against. which. man. struggles;. religious. people. should. work. for. the. betterment. of. the. one. world. they. have. and. not. turn. from. it. for. a. vision. of. private. bliss. in. the. hereafter.. The. world. will. never. be. bettered. by. people. who. believe. that. they. can. atone. for. their. sins. and. who. do. not. understand. that. their. misdeeds. are. irrevocable.. While. society. should. divide. wealth. equally,. no. adult. should. receive. his. allowance. unless. he. or. she. produces. by. personal. exertion. more. than. he. or. she. consumes.. Society. should. not. punish. those. guilty. of. crime,. especially. by. putting. them. in. prisons. that. render. them. worse,. but. neither. should. it. hesitate. to. put. to. death. anyone. whose. misconduct. is. incorrigible,. just. as. people. would. not. hesitate. to. destroy. a. mad. dog.

Though. these. ideas. are. familiar. to. Shavians,. and. though. most. of. them. are. fleshed. out. in. the. play. itself,. Major. Barbara. may. first. take. a. reader. by. surprise.. Can. the. pacifist. and. socialist. Shaw. be. making. a. hero. of. a. capitalist. who. makes. his. living. on. the. profits. of. warfare?. It. is. not. enough. to. answer. that. the. capitalist. uses. his. capital. to. create. an. ideal. socialist. community;. for. this,. Shaw. could. have. chosen. a. banker.. On. the. contrary,. he. deliberately. chooses. a. munitions. manufacturer. because. the. irony. helps. make. his. point.. However. horrid. warfare. is,. it. is. not. so. horrid. as. poverty.. Undershaft. tells. Barbara. and. Cusins. in. the. final. act. that. poverty. is. the. worst. of. crimes,. for. it. blights. whole. cities,. spreads. pestilence,. and. strikes. dead. any. souls. within. its. compass.. Barbara. cannot. save. souls. inWest. Ham. by. words. and. dreams,. but. if. she. gives. aWest. Ham. ruffian. thirty-eight. shillings. a. week,. with. a. sound. house. in. a. handsome. street. and. a. permanent. job,. she. will. save. his. soul.

When. Barbara. turns. from. the. Salvation. Army. to. Undershaft’s. community. at. Perivale. St.. Andrews,. she. is. not. giving. up. religion.. She. is. turning,. Shaw. would. have. it,. from. a. phony. religion. dependent. on. a. bribe. to. the. poor. and. on. the. maintenance. of. inequitable. present. conditions,. to. a. genuine. religion. that. will. bring. significant. social. change.. Her. conversion. is. completely. consistent. with. her. character.. When. her. father. asks. her. to. tell. Cusins. what. power. is,. she. answers. that. before. joining. the. Salvation. Army,. she. was. in. her. own. power. and,. as. a. consequence,. did. not. know. what. to. do. with. herself.. Once. she. joined. the. Army,. she. thought. herself. in. the. power. of. God. and. did. not. have. enough. time. for. all. that. needed. to. be. done.. Undershaft. helps. her. to. transfer. this. commitment. to. a. more. realistic. cause,. which. will. genuinely. improve. the. lot. of. the. poor,. but. a. cause. that. is. still. essentially. spiritual.

Because. Undershaft. sees. his. work. in. the. same. light. as. Barbara. sees. hers,. he. can. insist. that. he. is. not. a. secularist. but. a. confirmed. mystic.. Perivale. St.. Andrews. is. driven. by. a. will. of. which. he. is. a. part.. Thus,. once. again,. Shaw’s. hero. is. chosen. because. he. is. attuned. to. the. Life. Force.. It. matters. little. that. he. is. a. munitions. maker.. In. Saint. Joan,. the. heroine. is. a. saint,. yet. she. is. chosen. not. as. a. representative. of. Christian. orthodoxy. but. because. she. was. mystic. enough. to. see. that. she. served. a. will. greater. than. her. own.

In. Major. Barbara,. Shaw. also. makes. use. of. a. host. of. lesser. characters. to. dramatize. his. political,. moral,. and. ethical. theories.. When. Stephen. Undershaft. is. asked. by. his. father. what. he. is. able. to. do. in. life,. so. that. Undershaft. can. give. him. a. fair. start,. he. makes. it. evident. that. he. is. capable. of. nothing,. except—he. asserts. defensively—of. knowing. the. difference. between. good. and. evil,. something. he. implies. his. father. does. not. know.. With. this,. Undershaft. has. great. fun.. Stephen. knows. nothing. of. law,. of. business,. of. art,. or. of. philosophy,. yet. he. claims. to. know. the. secret. that. has. baffled. philosophers. for. ages.. Because. Stephen. knows. nothing. but. claims. to. know. everything,. Undershaft. declares. him. fit. for. politics.. To. this. remark,. Stephen. takes. exception;. he. will. not. hear. his. father. insult. his. country’s. government.. Undershaft. once. again,. however,. reflects. Shaw’s. conviction. that. big. business. rules. government. when. he. sputters,. “The. government. of. your. country!. I. am. the. government. of. your. country.”

Peter. Shirley,. rather. than. Barbara,. provides. the. real. contrast. with. Undershaft.. Barbara. shares. her. father’s. “heavenly”. temper,. his. sense. of. purpose.. The. Army. shares. with. him. the. recognition. that. it. needs. money.. Peter. Shirley,. the. unemployed. visitor. at. West. Ham,. plays. Lazarus. to. Undershaft’s. Dives,. as. Shaw. puts. it.. Because. the. majority. of. the. world. believes. that. an. “honest”. poor. man. such. as. Shirley. is. morally. superior. to. a. “wicked”. rich. one. such. as. Undershaft,. the. misery. of. the. world. continues.. It. is. significant. that. when. Undershaft. gives. Shirley. a. job,. the. man. is. unhappy.

Bill. Walker,. who. beats. up. an. old. woman. visiting. the. West. Ham. shelter. and. then. a. young. woman. member. of. the. Army. itself,. tries. to. atone. by. having. himself. beaten. up. in. turn. by. a. professional. boxer,. Todger. Fermile.. Such. a. grotesque. instance. of. atonement. is. no. more. grotesque. than. any. other. attempt. at. atonement,. Shaw. believes,. and. both. Barbara. and. Cusins. agree. with. Undershaft. that. one. cannot. atone. for. evil;. one. does. good. only. by. changing. evil. ways.. It. can. be. argued,. as. in. the. case. of. many. other. Shavian. criticisms. of. Christianity,. that. Shaw. did. not. understand. the. Christian. doctrine.. Perhaps,. however,. he. understood. de. facto. Christianity. all. too. well.

Adolphus. Cusins. also. plays. a. significant. role. in. the. drama,. certainly. the. most. significant. after. those. of. Undershaft. and. Barbara,. and. he. eventually. takes. over. the. munitions. factory.. A. man. of. greater. intelligence. and. more. humane. sympathies. than. Undershaft,. he. may. be. the. hope. for. the. Life. Force. taking. a. significant. step. forward.. Undershaft. repeatedly. refers. to. this. professor. of. Greek. as. “Dionysius,”. which. suggests. in. Cusins. a. capacity. to. stand. outside. himself. to. achieve. union. with. the. Life. Force.. Clearly,. Undershaft. invites. him. to. make. war. on. war. when. he. turns. over. the. munitions. works. to. him.

Major. Barbara. is. perhaps. freighted. with. too. much. paradox. to. do. its. job. convincingly.. Certainly,. act. 1. is. sparkling. comedy. as. Undershaft. meets. his. family. without. knowing. who. is. who.. Moreover,. the. contrast. between. Undershaft’s. “gospel”. and. Barbara’s. is. convincingly. set. forth.. Act. 2. is. occasionally. excellent. comedy,. and. comedy. fused. with. meaning,. as. when. Barbara. deals. with. the. bully. Bill. Walker,. but. Walker’s. part. becomes. a. bit. too. obtrusive. a. vehicle. for. attacking. atonement,. and. Undershaft’s. demonstration. of. how. all. religious. organizations. exist. by. selling. themselves. to. the. rich. is. somewhat. more. asserted. than. dramatized.. Perhaps. the. concluding. act. is. the. least. successful,. since. Barbara’s. and. Cusins’s. conversion. is. necessarily. hurried. to. preserve. the. unities,. and. Shaw. has. difficulty. making. his. Utopia. convincing,. a. difficulty. he. later. experienced. more. keenly. in. Back. to. Methuselah.. To. do. Shaw. justice,. he. acknowledged. that,. while. one. can. know. that. the. Life. Force. is. driving. upward,. one. cannot. know. precisely. how.. Thus,. attempts. to. dramatize. future. points. of. progress. in. creative. evolution. present. insuperable. obstacles.

 

Saint Joan

More. than. in. Major. Barbara. and. perhaps. more. than. in. Man. and. Superman,. Shaw. found. in. Saint. Joan. a. fit. medium. to. dramatize. his. major. religious. ideas.. He. had. intended. to. write. a. play. about. Christ,. but. he. was. not. permitted. to. portray. divinity. on. the. English. stage.. Yet. no. play. by. Shaw. succeeds. more. unobtrusively. in. carrying. his. ideas. about. the. Life. Force.. As. captivating. a. play. as. Major. Barbara. is,. Undershaft. has. straw. men. with. whom. to. do. battle,. and,. though. such. was. not. the. case. in. Man. and. Superman,. Shaw. needed. for. his. purposes. the. lengthy. dream. sequence. that. has. made. the. play. so. difficult. to. stage.. Candida. might. be. a. more. perfectly. structured. play,. but. it. does. not. carry. so. much. of. Shaw’s. mature. philosophy.. Among. Shaw’s. major. dramas,. then,. Saint. Joan. is. perhaps. the. finest. blend. of. matter. and. form.

Saint. Joan. is. divided. into. six. scenes. and. an. epilogue.. In. the. first. scene,. Joan. appeals. to. Robert. de. Baudricourt. for. horse. and. armor. to. aid. in. the. siege. of. Orleans. and. to. see. to. the. coronation. of. the. Dauphin.. Although. he. at. first. scoffs. at. this. request,. made. through. his. servant,. when. faced. with. Joan,. he. is. persuaded. by. the. strength. of. her. person,. as. everyone. else. is.. In. scene. 2,. the. courtiers. try. to. dupe. her. and. pretend. that. Gilles. de. Rais. is. the. Dauphin.. Not. taken. in,. she. carries. the. Dauphin,. too,. by. her. force. of. persuasion. and. convinces. this. weakling. that. he,. too,. has. a. divine. mission. that. he. must. be. strong. enough. to. accept.. In. scene. 3,. Joan. joins. Dunois,. the. leader. of. the. French. forces,. and. under. their. combined. leadership,. France. enjoys. a. series. of. victories.. In. scene. 4,. the. Earl. of. Warwick. and. the. Bishop. of. Beauvais. plan. Joan’s. eventual. execution.. The. Englishman. wants. her. dead. for. obvious. military. reasons;. the. Frenchman,. because. she. is. a. dangerous. heretic.. In. scene. 5,. she. is. told. to. give. up. fighting,. that. there. is. no. need. for. more. victories.. She. is. told. to. let. the. English. have. Paris.. Her. sense. of. destiny,. however,. convinces. her. that. the. English. must. be. driven. from. French. soil.

In. scene. 6,. Joan. has. been. arrested.. She. is. given. by. the. Inquisition. what. Shaw. considers. a. fairer. trial. than. is. available. to. defendants. today.. She. finally. recants. what. the. clergymen. consider. her. heresy,. but. when. told. that. she. must. remain. forever. in. prison. as. punishment. for. her. spiritual. offenses,. she. tears. up. her. recantation. and. goes. to. the. stake. under. Warwick’s. authority.. The. epilogue. gets. the. play. back. into. the. comic. frame. and. allows. Joan. and. the. rest. of. the. cast. of. characters. to. appear. twenty-five. years. later. before. Charles,. now. King,. and. discuss. the. Church’s. recent. reversal. in. favor. of. Joan.. There. is. even. a. time-shift. of. several. centuries,. to. the. year. 1920,. so. that. Joan’s. canonization. can. be. mentioned.. Yet. the. epilogue. ultimately. suggests. that,. were. she. to. return. to. France. in. the. twentieth. century,. Joan. would. again. be. put. to. death. by. the. very. people. who. now. praise. her.

The. greatness. of. Saint. Joan. lies. in. its. scrupulous. dramatization. of. a. universal. problem.. The. problem. of. how. one. reconciles. the. dictates. of. the. individual. conscience. with. the. demands. of. authority. is. one. without. easy. solutions,. whether. the. individual. stands. against. ecclesiastical,. civil,. military,. or. familial. authority.. The. sympathy. Shaw. extends. to. Joan. in. declaring. her. one. of. the. first. “Protestant”. saints. he. extends. also. to. the. Inquisitors,. who,. he. asserts,. tried. Joan. more. fairly. than. they. themselves. were. later. tried. when. the. judgment. on. Joan. was. reversed.

Shaw’s. fairness. is. evident. in. scene. 4,. for. example,. when. Peter. Cauchon. makes. clear. to. the. Earl. of. Warwick. that,. even. though. both. men. want. Joan. captured,. they. differ. in. every. other. respect.. Cauchon,. Bishop. of. Beauvais,. does. not. believe. that. Joan. is. a. witch. and. will. not. allow. Warwick. to. get. rid. of. her. on. this. trumped-up. charge.. Joan. is. a. heretic,. much. more. dangerous. than. a. witch,. but. he. would. prefer. to. save. her. soul.. She. is. a. pious. and. honest. girl. who,. through. pride,. is. caught. up. in. the. Devil’s. mighty. purpose:. to. wrack. the. Church. with. discord. and. dissension—the. same. purpose. for. which. the. Devil. used. John. Huss. and. John. Wycliffe.. If. a. reformer. will. not. finally. effect. reform. within. the. pale. of. Church. authority,. every. crackpot. who. sees. visions. will. be. followed. by. the. naïve. populace,. and. the. Church. will. be. wrecked. beyond. repair.

These. arguments. are. completely. familiar. to. the. present. age,. in. which. soldiers. are. told. they. must. obey. commanding. officers. who. order. the. extinction. of. noncombatants.. Can. one. obey. such. orders?. Yet. there. surely. must. be. obedience. to. authority,. despite. doubts. about. its. wisdom,. or. there. will. be. anarchy.. Humankind. has. come. no. closer. to. finding. a. solution. to. the. tensions. between. individual. conscience. and. authority. than. it. had. in. Joan’s. day,. and. it. is. that. insoluble. problem. that. forces. audiences. to. move. beyond. easy. condemnation. of. the. Inquisition. and. equally. easy. sanctification. of. Joan.

Critics. have. often. objected. to. Shaw’s. epilogue. on. the. ground. that. Joan’s. tragedy. is. trivialized. by. it,. yet. the. epilogue. is. necessary. for. Shaw’s. theme:. that. from. the. same. elements,. the. same. tragedy. would. come. again.. The. trial. at. which. Joan’s. judges. were. judged. and. she. was. exonerated. was. a. much. more. unscrupulous. affair. than. was. Joan’s. trial.. Ladvenu,. who. had. been. the. most. sympathetic. of. those. who. tried. Joan,. tells. King. Charles. that. the. old. trial. was. faultless. in. every. respect. except. in. its. unjust. verdict,. while. the. new. trial. is. filled. with. perjury. and. corruption. yet. results. in. a. just. verdict.. Charles,. who. is. concerned. only. about. his. having. been. crowned. by. a. woman. who. was. considered. a. witch. and. a. heretic,. and. who. is. relieved. now. by. having. his. reign. validated,. asserts. that. no. matter. what. the. verdict,. were. Joan. brought. back. to. life,. her. present. admirers. would. burn. her. within. six. months.

In. his. preface,. Shaw. argues. that. there. was. no. inconsistency. in. the. Church’s. reversal. on. Joan.. Although. the. Roman. Catholic. Church. does. not. defer. to. private. judgment,. it. recognizes. that. the. highest. wisdom. may. come. to. an. individual. through. private. revelation. and. that,. on. sufficient. evidence,. the. Church. will. eventually. declare. such. an. individual. a. saint.. Thus,. many. saints. have. been. at. odds. with. the. Church. before. their. canonization.. In. fact,. Shaw. contends,. had. Francis. of. Assisi. lived. longer,. he. might. have. gone. to. the. stake,. while. Galileo. might. yet. be. declared. a. saint.. Thus,. the. epilogue. helps. dramatize. the. complexity. inherent. in. Joan’s. struggle. with. the. Church.

In. none. of. the. plays. discussed—perhaps. nowhere. else. in. his. canon,. with. the. possible. exception. of. Caesar. and. Cleopatra—does. Shaw. present. an. example. of. a. character. in. the. grip. of. the. Life. Force. so. convincingly. as. he. does. in. the. character. of. Joan.. Bluntschli. is. an. amusing. soldier-adventurer;. Marchbanks,. a. callow. poet;. Tanner,. a. failed. revolutionary;. and. Undershaft,. a. munitions. maker. who. has. built. a. socialist. community.. Joan. is. both. a. Christian. and. a. Shavian. saint.. She. is. caught. up. in. a. sense. of. purpose. to. a. degree. none. of. Shaw’s. other. characters. is.. Saint. Joan,. then,. is. the. culmination. of. Shaw’s. art.. Although. other. plays. might. embrace. more. of. his. standard. literary. and. philosophical. obsessions,. none. takes. his. most. central. obsessions,. those. relating. to. the. Life. Force. and. creative. evolution,. and. fleshes. them. out. with. such. dramatic. integrity.

Principal drama

Widowers’. Houses,. wr.. 1885-1892,. pr.. 1892,. pb.. 1893;. Mrs.. Warren’s. Profession,. wr.. 1893,. pb.. 1898,. pr.. 1902;. The. Philanderer,. wr.. 1893,. pb.. 1898,. pr.. 1905;. Arms. and. the. Man,. pr.. 1894,. pb.. 1898;. Candida:. A. Mystery,. pr.. 1897,. pb.. 1898;. The. Devil’s. Disciple,. pr.. 1897,. pb.. 1901;. The. Man. of. Destiny,. pr.. 1897,. pb.. 1898;. You. Never. Can. Tell,. pb.. 1898,. pr.. 1899;. Captain. Brassbound’s. Conversion,. pr.. 1900,. pb.. 1901;. Caesar. and. Cleopatra,. pb.. 1901,. pr.. 1906;. The. Admirable. Bashville,. pr.. 1903,. pb.. 1909. (based. on. Shaw’s. novel. Cashel. Byron’s. Profession);. Man. and. Superman,. pb.. 1903,. pr.. 1905;. How. He. Lied. to. Her. Husband,. pr.. 1904,. pb.. 1907;. John. Bull’s. Other. Island,. pr.. 1904,. pb.. 1907;. Major. Barbara,. pr.. 1905,. pb.. 1907;. Passion,. Poison,. and. Petrifaction,. pr.,. pb.. 1905;. The. Doctor’s. Dilemma,. pr.. 1906,. pb.. 1911;. The. Interlude. at. the. Playhouse,. pr.,. pb.. 1907. (playlet);. Getting. Married,. pr.. 1908,. pb.. 1911;. Press. Cuttings,. pr.,. pb.. 1909;. The. Shewing. up. of. Blanco. Posnet,. pr.. 1909,. pb.. 1911;. The. Fascinating. Foundling,. wr.. 1909,. pb.. 1926,. pr.. 1928;. The. Glimpse. of. Reality,. wr.. 1909,. pb.. 1926,. pr.. 1927;. The. Dark. Lady. of. the. Sonnets,. pr.. 1910,. pb.. 1914;. Misalliance,. pr.. 1910,. pb.. 1914;. Fanny’s. First. Play,. pr.. 1911,. pb.. 1914;. Androcles. and. the. Lion,. pr.. 1912. (in. German),. pr.. 1913. (in. English),. pb.. 1916;. Overruled,. pr.. 1912,. pb.. 1916;. Pygmalion,. pb.. 1912,. pr.. 1914. (in. English),. pr.. 1913. (in. German);. Beauty’s. Duty,. wr.. 1913,. pb.. 1932. (playlet);. Great. Catherine,. pr.. 1913,. pb.. 1919;. Heartbreak. House,. wr.. 1913-1919,. pb.. 1919,. pr.. 1920;. The. Music. Cure,. pr.. 1914,. pb.. 1926;. The. Inca. of. Perusalem,. pr.. 1916,. pb.. 1919;. O’Flaherty,. V.C.,. pr.. 1917,. pb.. 1919;. Augustus. Does. His. Bit,. pr.. 1917,. pb.. 1919;. Annajanska,. the. Bolshevik. Empress,. pr.. 1918,. pb.. 1919;. Back. to. Methuselah,. pb.. 1921,. pr.. 1922;. Jitta’s. Atonement,. pr.. 1923,. pb.. 1926;. Saint. Joan,. pr.. 1923,. pb.. 1924;. The. Apple. Cart,. pr.. 1929,. pb.. 1930;. Too. True. to. Be. Good,. pr.. 1932,. pb.. 1934;. How. These. Doctors. Love. One. Another!,. pb.. 1932. (playlet);. On. the. Rocks,. pr.. 1933,. pb.. 1934;. Village. Wooing,. pr.,. pb.. 1934;. The. Six. Men. of. Calais,. pr.. 1934,. pb.. 1936;. The. Simpleton. of. the. Unexpected. Isles,. pr.,. pb.. 1935;. Arthur. and. Acetone,. pb.. 1936;. The. Millionairess,. pr.,. pb.. 1936;. Cymbeline. Refinished,. pr.. 1937,. pb.. 1938. (adaptation. of. William. Shakespeare’s. Cymbeline,. act. 5);. Geneva,. pr.. 1938,. pb.. 1939;. In. Good. King. Charles’s. Golden. Days,. pr.,. pb.. 1939;. “The. British. Party. System,”. wr.. 1944. (playlet);. Buoyant. Billions,. pb.. 1947,. pr.. 1948. (in. German),. pr.. 1949. (in. English);. Shakes. Versus. Shaw,. pr.. 1949,. pb.. 1950;. Far-. Fetched. Fables,. pr.,. pb.. 1950;. The. Bodley. Head. Bernard. Shaw:. Collected. Plays. with. Their. Prefaces,. pb.. 1970-1974. (7. volumes).

Major Works By G B Shahw

Long Ficction:.

Cashel. Byron’s. Profession,. 1886;. An. Unsocial. Socialist,. 1887;. Love. Among. the. Artists,. 1900;. The. Irrational. Knot,. 1905;. Immaturity,. 1930.

Short Fiction:

. The. Adventures. of. the. Black. Girl. in. Her. Search. for. God,. 1932.

Nonfiction:.

The. Quintessence. of. Ibsenism,. 1891;. The. Perfect. Wagnerite,. 1898;. The. Common. Sense. of. Municipal. Trading,. 1904;. Dramatic. Opinions. and. Essays,. 1907;. The. Sanity. of. Art,. 1908. (revised. from. 1895. serial. publication);. Letters. to. Miss. Alma. Murray,. 1927;. The. Intelligent. Woman’s. Guide. to. Socialism. and. Capitalism,. 1928;. Ellen. Terry. and. Shaw,. 1931;. Everybody’s. Political. What’s. What,. 1944;. Sixteen. Self. Sketches,. 1949;. Correspondence. Between. George. Bernard. Shaw. and. Mrs.. Patrick. Campbell,. 1952;. The. Matter. with. Ireland,. 1961;. Platform. and. Pulpit,. 1961. (Dan. H.. Laurence,. editor);. Collected. Letters,. 1965-1988. (4. volumes;. Laurence,. editor);. An. Autobiography,. 1856-1898,. 1969;. An. Autobiography,. 1898-. 1950,. 1970;. The. Nondramatic. Literary. Criticism. of. Bernard. Shaw,. 1972. (Stanley. Weintraub,. editor);. Shaw:. Interviews. and. Recollections,. 1990. (A.. M.. Gibbs,. editor);. Bernard. Shaw’s. Book. Reviews,. 1991. (Brian. Tyson,. editor).

Edited. text:. Fabian. Essays. in. Socialism,. 1889.

Miscellaneous:. Works,. 1930-1938. (33. volumes);. Short. Stories,. Scraps,. and. Shavings,. 1932;. Works,. 1947-1952. (36. volumes).

Bibliography Of G B Shaw

Davis,. Tracy. C.. George. Bernard. Shaw. and. the. Socialist. Theatre.. Westport,. Conn.:. Greenwood. Press,. 1994.

Dukore,. Bernard. Frank.. Shaw’s. Theater.. Gainesville:. University. Presses. of. Florida,. 2000.

Holroyd,. Michael.. The. Search. for. Love,. 1856-1898.. Vol.. 1. in. Bernard. Shaw.. New. York:. Random. House,. 1988.

_______.. The. Pursuit. of. Power,. 1898-1918.. Vol.. 2. in. Bernard. Shaw.. New. York:. Random. House,. 1989.

_______.. The. Lure. of. Fantasy,. 1918-1950.. Vol.. 3. in. Bernard. Shaw.. New. York:. Random. House,. 1991.

Innes,. Christopher,. ed.. The. Cambridge. Companion. to. George. Bernard. Shaw.. New. York:. Cambridge. University. Press,. 1998.

Larson,. Gale. K.,. ed.. Shaw:. Volume. 21. in. the. Annual. Bernard. Shaw. Series.. University. Park:. Pennsylvania. State. University. Press,. 2001.

Lenker,. Lagretta. Tallent.. Fathers. and. Daughters. in. Shakespeare. and. Shaw.. Westport,. Conn.:. Greenwood. Press,. 2001.